WWW Resources on the Marshall Islands Traditional utilization of Mangroves in the Marshall Islands

Mangroves are coastal plants growing in well defined ecological contexts within a transsect perpendicular to the shoreline ("mangrove zonation"). Commonly, the intertidal water's edge is occupied by Rhizophora spp. or Sonneratiaalba, while the permanently dry land (save for spring tides and storms waves), is often occupied by Pemphis acidula. Although Bruguieracan withstand a wide salinity range, it prefers stands which have a substantially lower salinity than sea water, preferably on dry land or only tidally covered land. In the Marshall Islands, mangroves, especiallyBruguiera, are commonly found in inland low wet spots, termed "mangrove depressions" (pat).

Distribution of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza in the Marshall Islands

1. No human interaction at all, merely harvesting and exploitation plants if available (foraging).
2. Tending of naturally propagated plants by clearing them of vines and other encroaching vegetation. Commonly employed for plants useful as emergency and typhoon food, such as arrow-root (Tacca leontopetaloides;Makmok).
3. Intentional planting of utility plants on an ad hoc basis and harvesting of resources as need arises. Commonly employed for utility plants such as hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus) or coconut (Cocos nucifera)and for plants useful as emergency and typhoon food, such as arrow-root.
4. Intentional planting and harvesting of plants on a seasonal basis, commonly employed for tree crops such as breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) orPandanus.
5. Intentional planting, tending and harvesting of plants on a regular seasonal basis, commonly employed for the major food plants such as taro(Cyrtosperma).

Artificial propagation of Bruguiera gymnorhiza was noted by Hathaway on Arno Atoll, where on Tutu Island a freshwater swamp was encountered with only very young Bruguiera trees. Upon enquiry it transpired that the trees had been planted sometime between 1933 and 1942. The artificial propagation and `cultivation' of Bruguiera gymnorhiza is also reported by ethnographic evidence of the 19^th and 20^th century. Some experts even speculates that Bruguiera may have been a non-indigenous cultivar introduced to the Marshall Islands in pre-European times.

This artificial propagation seems to coincide with actions by the Marshallese to retain land gained during typhoon events, as is evidenced by the planting of scrubs and coconuts on newly created strand walls.

Another important aspect to be considered is the reported presence of theton (Anguilla celebensis) in the pat. The ton, as a freshwater fish (eel) not native to coral reefs, seems incapable of migration to the Marshall Islands on its own and seems to have been intentionally imported to the atolls of the Marshall Islands. Apart from the pat on Delap, the presence of ton is also reported for the interior of Namorikand for Jaluit. The distribution of the eel is confined to the southern atollsof the Marshall Islands, those atolls which were in contact with the islands to the west. It appears, that the ton is an animal introduced by deliberate human actions from a source in the west, possibly Kosrae or Pohnpei.

Such a connection is the more interesting as mangroves are very commonon those islands. Following from this, it can be speculated that theBruguiera and the eel Anguilla celebensis may have been imported--among other cultivars and animals(?)--as part and parcel of the same "swamp improvement package" from these islands. Apart from some equivocal linguistic data, however, there is at present little tangible evidence for this assumption, as archaeological data do not allow for any such analyses.

Distribution patterns

Although the name of a wato may have changed over time, it can be assumed to be older than the past 200 years. The pat-watos are common throughout the Marshall Islands and are only absent on the uninhabited or only infrequently inhabited islands. The distribution of the Bruguiera trees matches that of the pat-watos reasonably well with some exceptions on both sides. However, the use of the term pat can also refer to a swamp or depression in general and need not specify a mangrove swamp. The distribution of the wato names with the formant jon, however,indicates those watos on islands/atolls, where the occurrence ofBruguiera gymnorrhiza was considered to be important. These atolls are concentrated in the southern Marshalls. The distribution of the eel is concentrated even more on the southern atolls, with the exception of Mile and Ebon.

In summing up, the southern atolls of the Marshall Islands show a greater concentration of variables than the northern ones. To some extent this may be due to rainfall characteristics, although, as has been mentioned above, human dispersal is a key factor. The traditional communication links in the Marshall Islands, modified by sailing conditions and political configurations, seem to have been restricted to the individual chains: that is, the northern atolls of the Ralik Chain had contact with the atolls of the southern Ralik Chain, but only rarely contact with northern atolls of the Ratak Chain. In the time just prior to and during the period of the initial contact with Europeans, the southern Marshalls, namely Ebon, Jaluit, Mile, Arno and Majuro maintained afrequent, though irregular contact between the chains. Thus it is feasible that the mangroves and eels, if imported from the west, entered the Marshall Islands by way of Namorik and Jaluit, from where they were traded/ exchanged eastward to Majuro/Arno and northward in both chains.

Use of mangroves in Marshallese culture

In addition, small items, such as fishing spears (made), copra-huskers (doon) and small basket-type fishtraps (u) were made from the branches. The bark of the tree was utilised to make rope(s) and string for fishing nets, as well as for traditional medicine, especially to cure fish poisoning. The red flowers were, and still are, sometimes used as flower garlands (leis and wuts).

The propagules were the main part of the tree used as a dye in traditional culture: stripped of their outer rind, the propagules were cut up and boiled in helmet shells (Cassis cornuta) or coconut shells. The fibres to be dyed were then soaked in the resulting broth and dried in the shade. The broth was used for colouring and strengthening fibres, such as those of fishing nets made of coconut fibres or grass skirts and other items made of loo (Hibiscus tiliaceus). The initial colouring seems to have been red-brownand repeated soaking resulted in a black colour. The dye made of the propagules had also a sealing effect, stopping the dye from running if the woven artifact became wet.